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CURRICULUM中文(简体)翻译:剑桥词典
CURRICULUM中文(简体)翻译:剑桥词典
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curriculum 在英语-中文(简体)词典中的翻译
curriculumnoun [ C ] uk
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/kəˈrɪk.jə.ləm/ us
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/kəˈrɪk.jə.ləm/ plural curricula /kəˈrɪk.jə.lə/ /kəˈrɪk.jə.lə/ curriculums
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B1 the subjects studied in a school, college, etc. and what each subject includes
课程
the school curriculum
学校课程
同义词
programme UK
syllabus也请参见
the national curriculum
更多范例减少例句Maths is an intrinsic part of the school curriculum.The Romans aren't on this year's curriculum.She demanded to see the school's curriculum.
相关词语
curricular
(curriculum在剑桥英语-中文(简体)词典的翻译 © Cambridge University Press)
curriculum的例句
curriculum
In primary schools, the class teacher teaches all the subjects in the curriculum to the class, regardless of his preferences, flair and interests.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
What factors influence research agendas and the creation of bioethics curricula?
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
This has led to talk of a unified curriculum, with publishers able to produce for a much larger, economically viable market.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
Some advocates of reform stressed the desirability of adding new subjects to the curriculum, including modern sciences.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
The differences centred on the extent to which the curriculum should be vocational or non-vocational in content.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
It is more an exposition of principles that underpin curriculum design, together with examples of how these might work in practice.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
Since 1999, it has been a required subject in the primary and secondary school curriculum.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
The aforementioned sources all provide valuable perspectives on language curriculum.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
示例中的观点不代表剑桥词典编辑、剑桥大学出版社和其许可证颁发者的观点。
B1
curriculum的翻译
中文(繁体)
課程…
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西班牙语
currículo, currículum [masculine]…
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葡萄牙语
currículo (escolar), currículo [masculine]…
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in Marathi
日语
土耳其语
法语
加泰罗尼亚语
in Dutch
in Tamil
in Hindi
in Gujarati
丹麦语
in Swedish
马来语
德语
挪威语
in Urdu
in Ukrainian
俄语
in Telugu
阿拉伯语
in Bengali
捷克语
印尼语
泰语
越南语
波兰语
韩语
意大利语
शाळा, महाविद्यालयात शिकलेले विषय इ. आणि प्रत्येक विषयात काय समाविष्ट आहे…
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カリキュラム…
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öğretim/müfredat programı/izlencesi, müfredat/öğretim programı…
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programme [masculine] scolaire, programme (des études)…
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pla d’estudis…
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leerplan…
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ஒரு பள்ளி, கல்லூரி போன்றவற்றில் படித்த பாடங்கள். ஒவ்வொரு பாடத்திலும் என்ன அடங்கும்…
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(स्कूल, कॉलेज और प्रत्येक विषय का) पाठ्यक्रम…
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અભ્યાસક્રમ…
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pensum, studieplan…
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studie-, kursplan, schema…
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kurikulum…
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der Lehrplan…
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læreplan [masculine], pensum [neuter], fag-/studietilbud…
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نصابِ تعلیم…
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курс навчання, навчальна програма…
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программа (учебная)…
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పాఠ్యప్రణాళిక…
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مَنهَج دِراسي…
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পাঠ্যক্রম…
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studijní plán…
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program, kurikulum…
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หลักสูตร…
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các môn học hoặc khóa học ở trường đại học…
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program (nauczania ), program…
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교육과정…
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curriculum, programma di studi…
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在英语词典中查看 curriculum 的释义
浏览
current account
current affairs
currently
curricular
curriculum
curriculum vitae
curried
curry
curry paste
curriculum更多的中文(简体)翻译
全部
curriculum vitae
the national curriculum
core curriculum/subjects/courses
查看全部意思»
“每日一词”
healthspan
UK
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/ˈhelθ.spæn/
US
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/ˈhelθ.spæn/
the number of years that someone lives or can expect to live in reasonably good health
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Curriculum Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
Curriculum Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
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curriculum
noun
cur·ric·u·lum
kə-ˈri-kyə-ləm
plural curricula
kə-ˈri-kyə-lə
also curriculums
Synonyms of curriculum
1
: the courses offered by an educational institution
the high school curriculum
2
: a set of courses constituting an area of specialization
the engineering curriculum the biological sciences curriculum the liberal arts curriculum
Did you know?
The Different Plural Forms of Curriculum Curriculum is from New Latin (a post-medieval form of Latin used mainly in churches and schools and for scientific coinages), in which language it means “a course of study.” It shares its ultimate root in classical Latin, where it meant “running” or “course” (as in “race course”), with words such as corridor, courier, and currency, all of which come from Latin currere “to run.”
As is the case with many nouns borrowed directly from Latin, there is often some confusion as to the proper way to form its plural. Both curricula and curriculums are considered correct.
This word is frequently seen in conjunction with vitae; a curriculum vitae (Latin for “course of (one’s) life”) is “a short account of one's career and qualifications prepared typically by an applicant for a position” – in other words, a résumé. Curriculum vitae is abbreviated CV, and is pluralized as curricula vitae.
Examples of curriculum in a Sentence
The college has a liberal arts curriculum.
Recent Examples on the Web
For example, if a town is speaking about school curriculum and invites public comments, as long as the comments tie back to the subject matter at hand, towns wouldn’t really be able to limit any hate comments being shared.
—Jeff A. Chamer, Charlotte Observer, 1 Mar. 2024
The group wanted a chance to push back on House Bill 7, which included, among other changes, new curriculum standards requiring instruction on how enslaved people benefited from their bondage.
—Lauren Costantino, Miami Herald, 29 Feb. 2024
The content of public school curricula, for example, is the speech of state government, not the speech of teachers, parents or students, courts have said.
—Ronnie Cohen, Los Angeles Times, 29 Feb. 2024
The program also comes with an entrepreneurship curriculum and professional development for teachers to help implement it.
—Kristen Taketa, San Diego Union-Tribune, 27 Feb. 2024
Meanwhile, in traditional education, a bad teacher or bad curriculum may often go unchallenged as students have little to no power at school.
—Dina Mattar, Forbes, 26 Feb. 2024
Since coming to power, Erdogan has lifted Turkey’s Kemalist-era ban on the hijab while also allowing Islam to flood into the country’s educational curriculum and political life.
—Soner Cagaptay, Foreign Affairs, 19 Feb. 2024
In reworking ethnic studies for high school, California came up with a 700-page model curriculum that captures much of the discipline’s leftist, activist spirit.
—Dana Goldstein, New York Times, 16 Feb. 2024
That has contributed to those students underperforming on standardized state assessments, such as the LEAP exam, being unprepared to advance to higher grades and being excluded from high-quality curricula and instruction, as well as the highest-performing schools and magnet schools.
—Christine Wen, The Conversation, 15 Feb. 2024
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These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'curriculum.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.
Word History
Etymology
borrowed from New Latin, going back to Latin, "action of running, course of action, race," from currere "to run" + -i- -i- + -culum, suffix of instrument and place (going back to Indo-European *-tlom) — more at current entry 1
First Known Use
1824, in the meaning defined at sense 1
Time Traveler
The first known use of curriculum was
in 1824
See more words from the same year
Phrases Containing curriculum
curriculum vitae
Dictionary Entries Near curriculum
curricular
curriculum
curriculum vitae
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Merriam-Webster
“Curriculum.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/curriculum. Accessed 8 Mar. 2024.
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Kids Definition
curriculum
noun
cur·ric·u·lum
kə-ˈrik-yə-ləm
plural curricula
-lə
also curriculums
: all the courses of study offered by a school
curricular
-lər
adjective
More from Merriam-Webster on curriculum
Thesaurus: All synonyms and antonyms for curriculum
Nglish: Translation of curriculum for Spanish Speakers
Britannica English: Translation of curriculum for Arabic Speakers
Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about curriculum
Last Updated:
4 Mar 2024
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Curriculum Definition
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The Glossary of Education Reform for Journalists, Parents, and Community Members
Created by the Great Schools Partnership, the GLOSSARY OF EDUCATION REFORM is a comprehensive online resource that describes widely used school-improvement terms, concepts, and strategies for journalists, parents, and community members. | Learn more »
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Curriculum
LAST UPDATED: 08.12.15
The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific course or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a school, but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly educators define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to learn, which includes the learning standards or learning objectives they are expected to meet; the units and lessons that teachers teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books, materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in a course; and the tests, assessments, and other methods used to evaluate student learning. An individual teacher’s curriculum, for example, would be the specific learning standards, lessons, assignments, and materials used to organize and teach a particular course.
When the terms curriculum or curricula are used in educational contexts without qualification, specific examples, or additional explanation, it may be difficult to determine precisely what the terms are referring to—mainly because they could be applied to either all or only some of the component parts of a school’s academic program or courses.
In many cases, teachers develop their own curricula, often refining and improving them over years, although it is also common for teachers to adapt lessons and syllabi created by other teachers, use curriculum templates and guides to structure their lessons and courses, or purchase prepackaged curricula from individuals and companies. In some cases, schools purchase comprehensive, multigrade curriculum packages—often in a particular subject area, such as mathematics—that teachers are required to use or follow. Curriculum may also encompass a school’s academic requirements for graduation, such as the courses students have to take and pass, the number of credits students must complete, and other requirements, such as completing a capstone project or a certain number of community-service hours. Generally speaking, curriculum takes many different forms in schools—too many to comprehensively catalog here.
It is important to note that while curriculum encompasses a wide variety of potential educational and instructional practices, educators often have a very precise, technical meaning in mind when they use the term. Most teachers spend a lot of time thinking about, studying, discussing, and analyzing curriculum, and many educators have acquired a specialist’s expertise in curriculum development—i.e., they know how to structure, organize, and deliver lessons in ways that facilitate or accelerate student learning. To noneducators, some curriculum materials may seem simple or straightforward (such as a list of required reading, for example), but they may reflect a deep and sophisticated understanding of an academic discipline and of the most effective strategies for learning acquisition and classroom management.
For a related discussion, see hidden curriculum.
Reform
Since curriculum is one of the foundational elements of effective schooling and teaching, it is often the object of reforms, most of which are broadly intended to either mandate or encourage greater curricular standardization and consistency across states, schools, grade levels, subject areas, and courses. The following are a few representative examples of the ways in which curriculum is targeted for improvement or used to leverage school improvement and increase teacher effectiveness:
Standards requirements: When new learning standards are adopted at the state, district, or school levels, teachers typically modify what they teach and bring their curriculum into “alignment” with the learning expectations outlined in the new standards. While the technical alignment of curriculum with standards does not necessarily mean that teachers are teaching in accordance with the standards—or, more to the point, that students are actually achieving those learning expectations—learning standards remain a mechanism by which policy makers and school leaders attempt to improve curriculum and teaching quality. The Common Core State Standards Initiative, for example, is a national effort to influence curriculum design and teaching quality in schools through the adoption of new learning standards by states.
Assessment requirements: Another reform strategy that indirectly influences curriculum is assessment, since the methods used to measure student learning compel teachers to teach the content and skills that will eventually be evaluated. The most commonly discussed examples are standardized testing and high-stakes testing, which can give rise to a phenomenon informally called “teaching to the test.” Because federal and state policies require students to take standardized tests at certain grade levels, and because regulatory penalties or negative publicity may result from poor student performance (in the case of high-stakes tests), teachers are consequently under pressure to teach in ways that are likely to improve student performance on standardized tests—e.g., by teaching the content likely to be tested or by coaching students on specific test-taking techniques. While standardized tests are one way in which assessment is used to leverage curriculum reform, schools may also use rubrics and many other strategies to improve teaching quality through the modification of assessment strategies, requirements, and expectations.
Curriculum alignment: Schools may try to improve curriculum quality by bringing teaching activities and course expectations into “alignment” with learning standards and other school courses—a practice sometimes called “curriculum mapping.” The basic idea is to create a more consistent and coherent academic program by making sure that teachers teach the most important content and eliminate learning gaps that may exist between sequential courses and grade levels. For example, teachers may review their mathematics program to ensure that what students are actually being taught in every Algebra I course offered in the school not only reflects expected learning standards for that subject area and grade level, but that it also prepares students for Algebra II and geometry. When the curriculum is not aligned, students might be taught significantly different content in each Algebra I course, for example, and students taking different Algebra I courses may complete the courses unevenly prepared for Algebra II. For a more detailed discussion, see coherent curriculum.
Curriculum philosophy: The design and goals of any curriculum reflect the educational philosophy—whether intentionally or unintentionally—of the educators who developed it. Consequently, curriculum reform may occur through the adoption of a different philosophy or model of teaching by a school or educator. Schools that follow the Expeditionary Learning model, for example, embrace a variety of approaches to teaching generally known as project-based learning, which encompasses related strategies such as community-based learning and authentic learning. In Expeditionary Learning schools, students complete multifaceted projects called “expeditions” that require teachers to develop and structure curriculum in ways that are quite different from the more traditional approaches commonly used in schools.
Curriculum packages: In some cases, schools decide to purchase or adopt a curriculum package that has been developed by an outside organization. One well-known and commonly used option for American public schools is International Baccalaureate, which offers curriculum programs for elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools. Districts may purchase all three programs or an individual school may purchase only one, and the programs may be offered to all or only some of the students in a school. When schools adopt a curriculum package, teachers often receive specialized training to ensure that the curriculum is effectively implemented and taught. In many cases, curriculum packages are purchased or adopted because they are perceived to be of a higher quality or more prestigious than the existing curriculum options offered by a school or independently developed by teachers.
Curriculum resources: The resources that schools provide to teachers can also have a significant affect on curriculum. For example, if a district or school purchases a certain set of textbooks and requires teachers to use them, those textbooks will inevitably influence what gets taught and how teachers teach. Technology purchases are another example of resources that have the potential to influence curriculum. If all students are given laptops and all classrooms are outfitted with interactive whiteboards, for example, teachers can make significant changes in what they teach and how they teach to take advantage of these new technologies (for a more detailed discussion of this example, see one-to-one). In most cases, however, new curriculum resources require schools to invest in professional development that helps teachers use the new resources effectively, given that simply providing new resources without investing in teacher education and training may fail to bring about desired improvements. In addition, the type of professional development provided to teachers can also have a major influence on curriculum development and design.
Curriculum standardization: States, districts, and schools may also try to improve teaching quality and effectiveness by requiring, or simply encouraging, teachers to use either a standardized curriculum or common processes for developing curriculum. While the strategies used to promote more standardized curricula can vary widely from state to state or school to school, the general goal is to increase teaching quality through greater curricular consistency. School performance will likely improve, the reasoning goes, if teaching methods and learning expectations are based on sound principles and consistently applied throughout a state, district, or school. Curriculum standards may also be created or proposed by influential educational organizations—such as the National Science Teachers Association or the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, for example—with the purpose of guiding learning expectations and teaching within particular academic disciplines.
Curriculum scripting: Often called “scripted curriculum,” the scripting of curriculum is the most prescriptive form of standardized, prepackaged curriculum, since it typically requires teachers to not only follow a particular sequence of preprepared lessons, but to actually read aloud from a teaching script in class. While the professional autonomy and creativity of individual teachers may be significantly limited when such a curriculum system is used, the general rationale is that teaching quality can be assured or improved, or at least maintained, across a school or educational system if teachers follow a precise instructional script. While not every teacher will be a naturally excellent teacher, the reasoning goes, all teachers can at least be given a high-quality curriculum script to follow. Scripted curricula tend to be most common in districts and schools that face significant challenges attracting and retaining experienced or qualified teachers, such as larger urban schools in high-poverty communities.
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CURRICULUM | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary
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Meaning of curriculum in English
curriculumnoun [ C ] uk
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/kəˈrɪk.jə.ləm/ us
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/kəˈrɪk.jə.ləm/ plural curricula uk/kəˈrɪk.jə.lə/ us/kəˈrɪk.jə.lə/ curriculums
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B1 the subjects studied in a school, college, etc. and what each subject includes: the school curriculum Synonyms
programme UK
syllabusSee also
the national curriculum
More examplesFewer examplesMaths is an intrinsic part of the school curriculum.The Romans aren't on this year's curriculum.She demanded to see the school's curriculum.
SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases
Classes & courses
academic year
access course
advanced
Advanced Placement
asynchronous
field trip
grind
homework
HyFlex
immersion course
in class
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Related word
curricular
(Definition of curriculum from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)
curriculum | American Dictionary
curriculumnoun [ C ] us
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/kəˈrɪk·jə·ləm/ plural curricula us/kəˈrɪk·jə·lə/ curriculums
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all the courses given in a school, college, etc., or a particular course of study in one subject
(Definition of curriculum from the Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)
Examples of curriculum
curriculum
The inclusion of a wide range of skills in conservatorium curricula would enable music graduates to expand the scope of their performance and non-performance roles.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
Some advocates of reform stressed the desirability of adding new subjects to the curriculum, including modern sciences.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
In primary schools, the class teacher teaches all the subjects in the curriculum to the class, regardless of his preferences, flair and interests.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
I offer five suggestions as to how this structural deficiency in engineering curricula can be corrected.
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The results will now be considered as regards their practical and theoretical implications for the curriculum.
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The prospect of eight levels of attainment in the revised curriculum of 2000 held out little hope for a more reasonable approach.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
The differences centred on the extent to which the curriculum should be vocational or non-vocational in content.
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In the new popular curriculum, both analysis and investigation as well as praxis would seem to be central in the integral formation of the student.
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We then ask why music continues to be one of the least popular subjects within the curriculum.
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Since 1999, it has been a required subject in the primary and secondary school curriculum.
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This has led to talk of a unified curriculum, with publishers able to produce for a much larger, economically viable market.
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Or, put another way, curriculum must be enacted to exist.
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Nor whether particular profiles of processing difficulties may result in particular patterns of problems with other aspects of the curriculum such as arithmetic and number.
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It is more an exposition of principles that underpin curriculum design, together with examples of how these might work in practice.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
What factors influence research agendas and the creation of bioethics curricula?
From the Cambridge English Corpus
These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.
Collocations with curriculum
curriculum
These are words often used in combination with curriculum.Click on a collocation to see more examples of it.
balanced curriculumThe intention of the latter is to provide 'a framework for a broad and balanced curriculum' (p. 3).
From the Cambridge English Corpus
challenging curriculumScholars and enthusiasts alike will find this guide augmenting their future reading lists and challenging curriculum boundaries.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
comprehensive curriculumBut with the introduction of a more comprehensive curriculum, incorporating other domains of knowing, including music, these objectives were extended to the more constructive use of leisure.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.
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What is the pronunciation of curricula?
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課程…
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课程…
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currículo, currículum [masculine]…
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शाळा, महाविद्यालयात शिकलेले विषय इ. आणि प्रत्येक विषयात काय समाविष्ट आहे…
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カリキュラム…
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öğretim/müfredat programı/izlencesi, müfredat/öğretim programı…
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programme [masculine] scolaire, programme (des études)…
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pla d’estudis…
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leerplan…
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ஒரு பள்ளி, கல்லூரி போன்றவற்றில் படித்த பாடங்கள். ஒவ்வொரு பாடத்திலும் என்ன அடங்கும்…
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(स्कूल, कॉलेज और प्रत्येक विषय का) पाठ्यक्रम…
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pensum, studieplan…
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studie-, kursplan, schema…
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kurikulum…
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der Lehrplan…
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læreplan [masculine], pensum [neuter], fag-/studietilbud…
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نصابِ تعلیم…
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курс навчання, навчальна програма…
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программа (учебная)…
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పాఠ్యప్రణాళిక…
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مَنهَج دِراسي…
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পাঠ্যক্রম…
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studijní plán…
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program, kurikulum…
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หลักสูตร…
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các môn học hoặc khóa học ở trường đại học…
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program (nauczania ), program…
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교육과정…
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curriculum, programma di studi…
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core curriculum
curriculum vitae
the national curriculum
curriculum vitae, at résumé
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Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types
Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types
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Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types
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Table of Contents
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Purpose of Curriculum Design
Types of Curriculum Design
Subject-Centered Curriculum Design
Learner-Centered Curriculum Design
Problem-Centered Curriculum Design
Curriculum Design Tips
By
Karen Schweitzer
Karen Schweitzer
Business Education Expert
Karen Schweitzer is a business school admissions consultant, curriculum developer, and education writer. She has been advising MBA applicants since 2005.
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Updated on November 12, 2019
Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and systematic organization of curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course. In other words, it is a way for teachers to plan instruction. When teachers design curriculum, they identify what will be done, who will do it, and what schedule to follow.
Purpose of Curriculum Design
Teachers design each curriculum with a specific educational purpose in mind. The ultimate goal is to improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ curriculum design as well. For example, designing a curriculum for middle school students with both elementary and high school curricula in mind helps to make sure that learning goals are aligned and complement each other from one stage to the next. If a middle school curriculum is designed without taking prior knowledge from elementary school or future learning in high school into account it can create real problems for the students.
Types of Curriculum Design
There are three basic types of curriculum design:
Subject-centered designLearner-centered designProblem-centered design
Subject-Centered Curriculum Design
Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline. For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type of curriculum design tends to focus on the subject rather than the individual. It is the most common type of curriculum used in K-12 public schools in states and local districts in the United States.
Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it should be studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design that can be standardized across schools, states, and the country as a whole. In standardized core curricula, teachers are provided a pre-determined list of things that they need to teach their students, along with specific examples of how these things should be taught. You can also find subject-centered designs in large college classes in which teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline.
The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-centered. In particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed without taking into account the specific learning styles of the students. This can cause problems with student engagement and motivation and may even cause students to fall behind in class.
Learner-Centered Curriculum Design
In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual's needs, interests, and goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students are not uniform and adjust to those student needs. Learner-centered curriculum design is meant to empower learners and allow them to shape their education through choices.
Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving students the opportunity to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities. This can motivate students and help them stay engaged in the material that they are learning.
The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor-intensive. Developing differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create instruction and/or find materials that are conducive to each student's learning needs. Teachers may not have the time or may lack the experience or skills to create such a plan. Learner-centered curriculum design also requires that teachers balance student wants and interests with student needs and required outcomes, which is not an easy balance to obtain.
Problem-Centered Curriculum Design
Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a form of student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching students how to look at a problem and come up with a solution to the problem. Students are thus exposed to real-life issues, which helps them develop skills that are transferable to the real world.
Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and allows students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it does not always take learning styles into consideration.
Curriculum Design Tips
The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the curriculum design process.
Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the curriculum design process. This can be done through needs analysis, which involves the collection and analysis of data related to the learner. This data might include what learners already know and what they need to know to be proficient in a particular area or skill. It may also include information about learner perceptions, strengths, and weaknesses.
Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you to focus on the intended purpose of the curriculum and allow you to plan instruction that can achieve the desired results. Learning goals are the things teachers want students to achieve in the course. Learning outcomes are the measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students should have achieved in the course.
Identify constraints that will impact your curriculum design. For example, time is a common constraint that must be considered. There are only so many hours, days, weeks or months in the term. If there isn't enough time to deliver all of the instruction that has been planned, it will impact learning outcomes.
Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum matrix) so that you can properly evaluate the sequence and coherence of instruction. Curriculum mapping provides visual diagrams or indexes of a curriculum. Analyzing a visual representation of the curriculum is a good way to quickly and easily identify potential gaps, redundancies or alignment issues in the sequencing of instruction. Curriculum maps can be created on paper or with software programs or online services designed specifically for this purpose.
Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the course and consider how they will work with student learning styles. If the instructional methods are not conducive to the curriculum, the instructional design or the curriculum design will need to be altered accordingly.
Establish evaluation methods that will be used at the end and during the school year to assess learners, instructors, and the curriculum. Evaluation will help you determine if the curriculum design is working or if it is failing. Examples of things that should be evaluated include the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and achievement rates related to learning outcomes. The most effective evaluation is ongoing and summative.
Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process; continuous improvement is a necessity. The design of the curriculum should be assessed periodically and refined based on assessment data. This may involve making alterations to the design partway through the course to ensure that learning outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will be achieved at the end of the course.
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Schweitzer, Karen. "Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types." ThoughtCo, Oct. 29, 2020, thoughtco.com/curriculum-design-definition-4154176.
Schweitzer, Karen. (2020, October 29). Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/curriculum-design-definition-4154176
Schweitzer, Karen. "Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/curriculum-design-definition-4154176 (accessed March 8, 2024).
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CURRICULUM | definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary
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Meaning of curriculum in English
curriculumnoun [ C ] us
Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio
/kəˈrɪk.jə.ləm/ uk
Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio
/kəˈrɪk.jə.ləm/ plural curricula us/kəˈrɪk.jə.lə/ uk/kəˈrɪk.jə.lə/ curriculums
Add to word list
Add to word list
B1 the subjects studied in a school, college, etc. and what each subject includes: the school curriculum Synonyms
program
syllabusSee also
the national curriculum
More examplesFewer examplesMath is an intrinsic part of the school curriculum.The Romans aren't on this year's curriculum.She demanded to see the school's curriculum.
SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases
Classes & courses
academic year
access course
advanced
Advanced Placement
asynchronous
grind
homework
honor
HyFlex
immersion course
in class
non-class
non-degree
on a course
open admissions
the national curriculum
tutorial
visual aid
work placement
workshop
See more results »
Related word
curricular
(Definition of curriculum from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)
curriculum | Intermediate English
curriculumnoun [ C ] us
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/kəˈrɪk·jə·ləm/ plural curricula us/kəˈrɪk·jə·lə/ curriculums
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all the courses given in a school, college, etc., or a particular course of study in one subject
(Definition of curriculum from the Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)
Examples of curriculum
curriculum
After the district adopted a new reading curriculum several years ago, the books were going to be trashed.
From OregonLive.com
Forget about problem solving, group work, and thinking outside the box, these kids need to memorize the core curriculum first.
From Huffington Post
Moreover, as education budgets continue to get slashed, humanity courses are usually the first to be cut from curriculum.
From Huffington Post
No doubt the report card is merely a reflection of larger shifts that need to happen, like curricula.
From CNN
Correctional personnel then create a personalized curriculum, which ranges from basic reading and writing skills to core subjects like science and history.
From NPR
As well, online courses entail investment in technology, curriculum development, faculty training, support services and administrative services.
From Chicago Tribune
Some public schools are now altering their curricula to teach grit and other gritty character traits.
From The New Yorker
Since the publication of the landmark curriculum almost five decades ago, however, employers have completely changed their hiring standards.
From TechCrunch
Schools need to add this to the curriculum.
From NPR
Many young people have been to school but can not find a job because their curriculum and education system is misaligned with employment markets.
From CNBC
It started as an after-school program, and now it's part of the in-school and after-school curriculum.
From NPR
They, oh my gosh what a concept, actually teach the curriculum in the most creative way they can.
From CNN
Do you think it's important for history curricula to include their stories?
From Huffington Post
He didn't spend the tuition windfall to shift the professor-to-student ratio or overhaul the curriculum.
From The Atlantic
These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.
Collocations with curriculum
curriculum
These are words often used in combination with curriculum. Click on a collocation to see more examples of it.
balanced curriculumThe intention of the latter is to provide 'a framework for a broad and balanced curriculum' (p. 3).
From the Cambridge English Corpus
challenging curriculumScholars and enthusiasts alike will find this guide augmenting their future reading lists and challenging curriculum boundaries.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
comprehensive curriculumBut with the introduction of a more comprehensive curriculum, incorporating other domains of knowing, including music, these objectives were extended to the more constructive use of leisure.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.
See all collocations with curriculum
What is the pronunciation of curriculum?
What is the pronunciation of curricula?
B1
Translations of curriculum
in Chinese (Traditional)
課程…
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in Chinese (Simplified)
课程…
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in Spanish
currículo, currículum [masculine]…
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in Portuguese
currículo (escolar), currículo [masculine]…
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in more languages
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शाळा, महाविद्यालयात शिकलेले विषय इ. आणि प्रत्येक विषयात काय समाविष्ट आहे…
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カリキュラム…
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öğretim/müfredat programı/izlencesi, müfredat/öğretim programı…
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programme [masculine] scolaire, programme (des études)…
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pla d’estudis…
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leerplan…
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ஒரு பள்ளி, கல்லூரி போன்றவற்றில் படித்த பாடங்கள். ஒவ்வொரு பாடத்திலும் என்ன அடங்கும்…
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(स्कूल, कॉलेज और प्रत्येक विषय का) पाठ्यक्रम…
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અભ્યાસક્રમ…
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pensum, studieplan…
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studie-, kursplan, schema…
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kurikulum…
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der Lehrplan…
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læreplan [masculine], pensum [neuter], fag-/studietilbud…
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نصابِ تعلیم…
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курс навчання, навчальна програма…
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программа (учебная)…
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పాఠ్యప్రణాళిక…
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مَنهَج دِراسي…
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পাঠ্যক্রম…
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studijní plán…
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program, kurikulum…
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หลักสูตร…
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các môn học hoặc khóa học ở trường đại học…
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program (nauczania ), program…
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교육과정…
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curriculum, programma di studi…
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curricula
curricula vitae
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curried
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More meanings of curriculum
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core curriculum
curriculum vitae
the national curriculum
curriculum vitae, at résumé
resume, at résumé
core curriculum/subjects/courses phrase
core curriculum/subjects/courses
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core curriculum/subjects/courses phrase
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the number of years that someone lives or can expect to live in reasonably good health
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What is curriculum? Exploring theory and practice
Posted byinfed.org April 18, 2013June 4, 2018
Curriculum theory and practice.The organization of schooling and further education has long been associated with the idea of a curriculum. But what actually is curriculum, and how might it be conceptualized? We explore curriculum theory and practice and its relation to informal education.
Contents: introduction · curriculum as transmission · curriculum as product · curriculum as process · curriculum as praxis · curriculum and context · curriculum and informal education · further reading · links · how to cite this article
The idea of curriculum is hardly new – but the way we understand and theorize it has altered over the years – and there remains considerable dispute as to meaning. It has its origins in the running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; currere was to run. A useful starting point for us here might be the definition offered by John Kerr and taken up by Vic Kelly in a standard work on the subject. Kerr defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school. (quoted in Kelly 1983: 10; see also, Kelly 1999). This gives us some basis to move on – and for the moment all we need to do is highlight two of the key features:
Learning is planned and guided. We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it.
The definition refers to schooling. We should recognize that our current appreciation of curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas such as subject and lesson.
In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice:
1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted.
2. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product.
3. Curriculum as process.
4. Curriculum as praxis.
It is helpful to consider these ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice in the light of Aristotle’s influential categorization of knowledge into three disciplines: the theoretical, the productive and the practical.
Here we can see some clear links – the body of knowledge to be transmitted in the first is that classically valued as ‘the canon’; the process and praxis models come close to practical deliberation; and the technical concerns of the outcome or product model mirror elements of Aristotle’s characterization of the productive. More this will be revealed as we examine the theory underpinning individual models.
Curriculum as a syllabus to be transmitted
Many people still equate a curriculum with a syllabus. Syllabus, naturally, originates from the Greek (although there was some confusion in its usage due to early misprints). Basically it means a concise statement or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a treatise, the subjects of a series of lectures. In the form that many of us will have been familiar with it is connected with courses leading to examinations – teachers talk of the syllabus associated with, say, the Cambridge Board French GSCE exam. What we can see in such documents is a series of headings with some additional notes which set out the areas that may be examined.
A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. In some cases as Curzon (1985) points out, those who compile a syllabus tend to follow the traditional textbook approach of an ‘order of contents’, or a pattern prescribed by a ‘logical’ approach to the subject, or – consciously or unconsciously – a the shape of a university course in which they may have participated. Thus, an approach to curriculum theory and practice which focuses on syllabus is only really concerned with content. Curriculum is a body of knowledge-content and/or subjects. Education in this sense, is the process by which these are transmitted or ‘delivered’ to students by the most effective methods that can be devised (Blenkin et al 1992: 23).
Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit. ‘It is also because this view of curriculum has been adopted that many teachers in primary schools’, Kelly (1985: 7) claims, ‘have regarded issues of curriculum as of no concern to them, since they have not regarded their task as being to transmit bodies of knowledge in this manner’.
Curriculum as product
The dominant modes of describing and managing education are today couched in the productive form. Education is most often seen as a technical exercise. Objectives are set, a plan drawn up, then applied, and the outcomes (products) measured. It is a way of thinking about education that has grown in influence in the United Kingdom since the late 1970s with the rise of vocationalism and the concern with competencies. Thus, in the late 1980s and the 1990s many of the debates about the National Curriculum for schools did not so much concern how the curriculum was thought about as to what its objectives and content might be.
It is the work of two American writers Franklin Bobbitt (1918; 1928) and Ralph W. Tyler (1949) that dominate theory and practice within this tradition. In The Curriculum Bobbitt writes as follows:
The central theory [of curriculum] is simple. Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and particularized. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences which children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives. (1918: 42)
This way of thinking about curriculum theory and practice was heavily influenced by the development of management thinking and practice. The rise of ‘scientific management’ is often associated with the name of its main advocate F. W. Taylor. Basically what he proposed was greater division of labour with jobs being simplified; an extension of managerial control over all elements of the workplace; and cost accounting based on systematic time-and-motion study. All three elements were involved in this conception of curriculum theory and practice. For example, one of the attractions of this approach to curriculum theory was that it involved detailed attention to what people needed to know in order to work, live their lives and so on. A familiar, and more restricted, example of this approach can be found in many training programmes, where particular tasks or jobs have been analyzed – broken down into their component elements – and lists of competencies drawn up. In other words, the curriculum was not to be the result of ‘armchair speculation’ but the product of systematic study. Bobbitt’s work and theory met with mixed responses. One telling criticism that was made, and can continue to be made, of such approaches is that there is no social vision or programme to guide the process of curriculum construction. As it stands it is a technical exercise. However, it wasn’t criticisms such as this which initially limited the impact of such curriculum theory in the late 1920s and 1930s. Rather, the growing influence of ‘progressive’, child-centred approaches shifted the ground to more romantic notions of education. Bobbitt’s long lists of objectives and his emphasis on order and structure hardly sat comfortably with such forms.
The Progressive movement lost much of its momentum in the late 1940s in the United States and from that period the work of Ralph W. Tyler, in particular, has made a lasting impression on curriculum theory and practice. He shared Bobbitt’s emphasis on rationality and relative simplicity. His theory was based on four fundamental questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Tyler 1949: 1)
Like Bobbitt he also placed an emphasis on the formulation of behavioural objectives.
Since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students’ pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. (Tyler 1949: 44)
We can see how these concerns translate into a nicely-ordered procedure: one that is very similar to the technical or productive thinking set out below.
Step 1: Diagnosis of need
Step 2: Formulation of objectives
Step 3: Selection of content
Step 4: Organization of content
Step 5: Selection of learning experiences
Step 6: Organization of learning experiences
Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it. (Taba 1962)
The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum theory and practice is that it is systematic and has considerable organizing power. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives – providing a clear notion of outcome so that content and method may be organized and the results evaluated.
There are a number of issues with this approach to curriculum theory and practice. The first is that the plan or programme assumes great importance. For example, we might look at a more recent definition of curriculum as: ‘A programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives (Grundy 1987: 11). The problem here is that such programmes inevitably exist prior to and outside the learning experiences. This takes much away from learners. They can end up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they will do it. The success or failure of both the programme and the individual learners is judged on the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour and person of the learner (the meeting of behavioural objectives). If the plan is tightly adhered to, there can only be limited opportunity for educators to make use of the interactions that occur. It also can deskill educators in another way. For example, a number of curriculum programmes, particularly in the USA, have attempted to make the student experience ‘teacher proof’. The logic of this approach is for the curriculum to be designed outside of the classroom or school, as is the case with the National Curriculum in the UK. Educators then apply programmes and are judged by the products of their actions. It turns educators into technicians.
Second, there are questions around the nature of objectives. This model is hot on measurability. It implies that behaviour can be objectively, mechanistically measured. There are obvious dangers here – there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being measured. We only have to reflect on questions of success in our work. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of particular experiences has been. Sometimes it is years after the event that we come to appreciate something of what has happened. For example, most informal educators who have been around a few years will have had the experience of an ex-participant telling them in great detail about how some forgotten event (forgotten to the worker that is) brought about some fundamental change. Yet there is something more.
In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller units. The result, as many of you will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This can lead to a focus in this approach to curriculum theory and practice on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow sidelined.
Third, there is a real problem when we come to examine what educators actually do in the classroom, for example. Much of the research concerning teacher thinking and classroom interaction, and curriculum innovation has pointed to the lack of impact on actual pedagogic practice of objectives (see Stenhouse 1974; and Cornbleth 1990, for example). One way of viewing this is that teachers simply get it wrong – they ought to work with objectives. I think we need to take this problem very seriously and not dismiss it in this way. The difficulties that educators experience with objectives in the classroom may point to something inherently wrong with the approach – that it is not grounded in the study of educational exchanges. It is a model of curriculum theory and practice largely imported from technological and industrial settings.
Fourth, there is the problem of unanticipated results. The focus on pre-specified goals may lead both educators and learners to overlook learning that is occurring as a result of their interactions, but which is not listed as an objective.
The apparent simplicity and rationality of this approach to curriculum theory and practice, and the way in which it mimics industrial management have been powerful factors in its success. A further appeal has been the ability of academics to use the model to attack teachers:
I believe there is a tendency, recurrent enough to suggest that it may be endemic in the approach, for academics in education to use the objectives model as a stick with which to beat teachers. ‘What are your objectives?’ is more often asked in a tone of challenge than one of interested and helpful inquiry. The demand for objectives is a demand for justification rather than a description of ends… It is not about curriculum design, but rather an expression of irritation in the problems of accountability in education. (Stenhouse 1974: 77)
So what are the other alternatives?
Curriculum as process
We have seen that the curriculum as product model is heavily dependent on the setting of behavioural objectives. The curriculum, essentially, is a set of documents for implementation. Another way of looking at curriculum theory and practice is via process. In this sense curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate. What we have in this model is a number of elements in constant interaction. It is an active process and links with the practical form of reasoning set out by Aristotle.
Curriculum as process
Teachers enter particular schooling and situations with
an ability to think critically, -in-action
an understanding of their role and the expectations others have of them, and
a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter.
Guided by these, they encourage
conversations between, and with, people in the situation
out of which may come
thinking and action.
They
continually evaluate the process and what they can see of outcomes.
Perhaps the two major things that set this apart from the model for informal education are first, the context in which the process occurs (‘particular schooling situations’); and second, the fact that teachers enter the classroom or any other formal educational setting with a more fully worked-through idea of what is about to happen. Here I have described that as entering the situation with ‘a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter’.
This form of words echoes those of Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) who produced one of the best-known explorations of a process model of curriculum theory and practice. He defined curriculum tentatively: ‘A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice’. He suggests that a curriculum is rather like a recipe in cookery.
It can be criticized on nutritional or gastronomic grounds – does it nourish the students and does it taste good? – and it can be criticized on the grounds of practicality – we can’t get hold of six dozen larks’ tongues and the grocer can’t find any ground unicorn horn! A curriculum, like the recipe for a dish, is first imagined as a possibility, then the subject of experiment. The recipe offered publicly is in a sense a report on the experiment. Similarly, a curriculum should be grounded in practice. It is an attempt to describe the work observed in classrooms that it is adequately communicated to teachers and others. Finally, within limits, a recipe can varied according to taste. So can a curriculum. (Stenhouse 1975: 4-5)
Stenhouse shifted the ground a little bit here. He was not saying that curriculum is the process, but rather the means by which the experience of attempting to put an educational proposal into practice is made available. The reason why he did this, I suspect, is that otherwise there is a danger of widening the meaning of the term so much that it embraces almost everything and hence means very little. For example, in a discussion of the so-called ‘youth work curriculum’ (Newman & Ingram 1989), the following definition was taken as a starting point: ‘those processes which enhance or, if they go wrong, inhibit a person’s learning’. This was then developed and a curriculum became: ‘an organic process by which learning is offered, accepted and internalized’ (Newman & Ingram 1989: 1). The problem with this sort of definition, as Robin Barrow (1984) points out, is that what this does is to widen the meaning of the term to such an extent that it just about becomes interchangeable with ‘education’ itself. More specifically, if curriculum is process then the word curriculum is redundant because process would do very nicely! The simple equation of curriculum with process is a very slap-happy basis on which to proceed.
We also need to reflect on why curriculum theory and practice came into use by educators (as against policy-makers). It was essentially as a way of helping them to think about their work before, during and after interventions; as a means of enabling educators to make judgments about the direction their work was taking. This is what Stenhouse was picking up on.
Stenhouse on curriculum
As a minimum, a curriculum should provide a basis for planning a course, studying it empirically and considering the grounds of its justification. It should offer:
A. In planning:
1. Principle for the selection of content – what is to be learned and taught
2. Principles for the development of a teaching strategy – how it is to be learned and taught.
3. Principles for the making of decisions about sequence.
4. Principles on which to diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of individual students and differentiate the general principles 1, 2 and 3 above, to meet individual cases.
B. In empirical study:
1. Principles on which to study and evaluate the progress of students.
2. Principles on which to study and evaluate the progress of teachers.
3. Guidance as to the feasibility of implementing the curriculum in varying school contexts, pupil contexts, environments and peer-group situations.
4. Information about the variability of effects in differing contexts and on different pupils and an understanding of the causes of the variation.
C. In relation to justification:
A formulation of the intention or aim of the curriculum which is accessible to critical scrutiny.
Stenhouse 1975: 5
There are a number of contrasts in this model of curriculum theory and practice as compared with the product model. First, where the product model appeals to the workshop for a model, this process model looks to the world of experimentation.
The idea is that of an educational science in which each classroom is a laboratory, each teacher a member of the scientific community… The crucial point is that the proposal is not to be regarded as an unqualified recommendation but rather as a provisional specification claiming no more than to be worth putting to the test of practice, Such proposals claim to be intelligent rather than correct. (Stenhouse 1975: 142)
Thus, in this sense, a curriculum is a particular form of specification about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of ground to be covered. ‘It is a way of translating any educational idea into a hypothesis testable in practice. It invites critical testing rather than acceptance’ (Stenhouse 1975: 142).
Second, and associated with the above, given the uniqueness of each classroom setting, it means that any proposal, even at school level, needs to be tested, and verified by each teacher in his/her classroom (ibid: 143). It is not like a curriculum package which is designed to be delivered almost anywhere.
Third, outcomes are no longer the central and defining feature. Rather than tightly specifying behavioural objectives and methods in advance, what happens in this model of curriculum theory and practice is that content and means develop as teachers and students work together.
Fourth, the learners in this model are not objects to be acted upon. They have a clear voice in the way that the sessions evolve. The focus is on interactions. This can mean that attention shifts from teaching to learning. The product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme, tends to direct attention to teaching. For example, how can this information be got over? A process approach to curriculum theory and practice, it is argued by writers like Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of learning the central concern of the teacher. This is because this way of thinking emphasizes interpretation and meaning-making. As we have seen each classroom and each exchange is different and has to be made sense of.
However, when we come to think about this way of approaching curriculum in practice, a number of possible problems do arise. The first is a problem for those who want some greater degree of uniformity in what is taught. This approach to the theory of curriculum, because it places meaning-making and thinking at its core and treats learners as subjects rather than objects, can lead to very different means being employed in classrooms and a high degree of variety in content. As Stenhouse comments, the process model is essentially a critical model, not a marking model.
It can never be directed towards an examination as an objective without loss of quality, since the standards of the examination then override the standards immanent in the subject. This does not mean that students taught on the process model cannot be examined, but it does mean that the examinations must be taken in their stride as they pursue other aspirations. And if the examination is a by-product there is an implication that the quality the student shows in it must be an under-estimate of his real quality. It is hence rather difficult to get the weak student through an examination using a process model. Crammers cannot use it, since it depends upon a commitment to educational aims. (Stenhouse 1975: 95)
To some extent variation is limited by factors such as public examinations. The exchange between students and teachers does not float free of the context in which it arises. At the end of the day many students and their families place a high premium on exam or subject success and this inevitably enters into the classroom. This highlights a second problem with the model we have just outlined – that it may not pay enough attention to the context in which learning takes place (more of this later).
Third, there is the ‘problem’ of teachers. The major weakness and, indeed, strength of the process model is that it rests upon the quality of teachers. If they are not up to much then there is no safety net in the form of prescribed curriculum materials. The approach is dependent upon the cultivation of wisdom and meaning-making in the classroom. If the teacher is not up to this, then there will be severe limitations on what can happen educationally. There have been some attempts to overcome this problem by developing materials and curriculum packages which focus more closely on the ‘process of discovery’ or ‘problem-solving’, for example in science. But there is a danger in this approach. Processes become reduced to sets of skills – for example, how to light a bunsen burner. When students are able to demonstrate certain skills, they are deemed to have completed the process. As Grundy comments, the actions have become the ends; the processes have become the product. Whether or not students are able to apply the skills to make sense of the world around them is somehow overlooked (Grundy 1987: 77).
Fourth, we need to look back at our process model of curriculum theory and practice and what we have subsequently discussed, and return to Aristotle and to Freire. The model we have looked at here does not fully reflect the process explored earlier. In particular, it does not make explicit the commitments associated with phronesis. And it is to that we will now turn.
Curriculum as praxis
Curriculum as praxis is, in many respects, a development of the process model. While the process model is driven by general principles and places an emphasis on judgment and meaning making, it does not make explicit statements about the interests it serves. It may, for example, be used in such a way that does not make continual reference to collective human well-being and to the emancipation of the human spirit. The praxis model of curriculum theory and practice brings these to the centre of the process and makes an explicit commitment to emancipation. Thus action is not simply informed, it is also committed. It is praxis.
Critical pedagogy goes beyond situating the learning experience within the experience of the learner: it is a process which takes the experiences of both the learner and the teacher and, through dialogue and negotiation, recognizes them both as problematic… [It] allows, indeed encourages, students and teachers together to confront the real problems of their existence and relationships… When students confront the real problems of their existence they will soon also be faced with their own oppression. (Grundy 1987: 105)
We can amend our ‘curriculum as process’ model to take account of these concerns.
Curriculum as praxis
Teachers enter particular schooling and situations with
a personal, but shared idea of the good and a commitment to human emancipation,
an ability to think critically, -in-action
an understanding of their role and the expectations others have of them, and
a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter.
Guided by these, they encourage
conversations between, and with, people in the situation
out of which may come
informed and committed action.
They
continually evaluate the process and what they can see of outcomes.
In this approach the curriculum itself develops through the dynamic interaction of action and reflection. ‘That is, the curriculum is not simply a set of plans to be implemented, but rather is constituted through an active process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related and integrated into the process’ (Grundy 1987: 115). At its centre is praxis: informed, committed action.
How might we recognize this? First, I think we should be looking for practice which does not focus exclusively on individuals, but pays careful attention to collective understandings and practices and to structural questions. For example, in sessions which seek to explore the experiences of different cultural and racial groups in society, we could be looking to see whether the direction of the work took people beyond a focus on individual attitudes. Are participants confronting the material conditions through which those attitudes are constituted, for example?
Second, we could be looking for a commitment expressed in action to the exploration of educators’ values and their practice. Are they, for example, able to say in a coherent way what they think makes for human well-being and link this with their practice? We could also be looking for certain values – especially an emphasis on human emancipation.
Third, we could expect practitioners committed to praxis to be exploring their practice with their peers. They would be able to say how their actions with respect to particular interventions reflected their ideas about what makes for the good, and to say what theories were involved.
Curriculum in context
To round off this discussion of curriculum we do need to pay further attention to the social context in which it is created. One criticism that has been made of the praxis model (especially as it is set out by Grundy) is that it does not place a strong enough emphasis upon context. This is a criticism that can also be laid at the door of the other approaches. In this respect the work of Catherine Cornbleth (1990) is of some use. She sees curriculum as a particular type of process. Curriculum for her is what actually happens in classrooms, that is, ‘an ongoing social process comprised of the interactions of students, teachers, knowledge and milieu’ (1990: 5). In contrast, Stenhouse defines curriculum as the attempt to describe what happens in classrooms rather than what actually occurs. Cornbleth further contends that curriculum as practice cannot be understood adequately or changed substantially without attention to its setting or context. Curriculum is contextually shaped. While I may quibble about the simple equation of curriculum with process, what Cornbleth does by focusing on the interaction is to bring out the significance of context.
First, by introducing the notion of milieu into the discussion of curriculum she again draws attention to the impact of some factors that we have already noted. Of especial significance here are examinations and the social relationships of the school – the nature of the teacher-student relationship, the organization of classes, streaming and so on. These elements are what are sometimes known as the hidden curriculum. This was a term credited to Philip W. Jackson (1968) but it had been present as an acknowledged element in education for some time before. For example, John Dewey in Experience and Education referred to the ‘collateral learning’ of attitudes that occur in schools, and that may well be of more long-range importance than the explicit school curriculum (1938: 48). A fairly standard (product) definition of the ‘hidden curriculum’ is given by Vic Kelly. He argues it is those things which students learn, ‘because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and organized but which are not in themselves overtly included in the planning or even in the consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangements (1988: 8). The learning associated with the ‘hidden curriculum’ is most often treated in a negative way. It is learning that is smuggled in and serves the interests of the status quo. The emphasis on regimentation, on bells and time management, and on streaming are sometimes seen as preparing young people for the world of capitalist production. What we do need to recognize is that such ‘hidden’ learning is not all negative and can be potentially liberating. ‘In so far as they enable students to develop socially valued knowledge and skills… or to form their own peer groups and subcultures, they may contribute to personal and collective autonomy and to possible critique and challenge of existing norms and institutions’ (Cornbleth 1990: 50). What we also need to recognize is that by treating curriculum as a contextualized social process, the notion of hidden curriculum becomes rather redundant. If we need to stay in touch with milieu as we build curriculum then it is not hidden but becomes a central part of our processes.
Second, by paying attention to milieu, we can begin to get a better grasp of the impact of structural and socio-cultural process on teachers and students. As Cornbleth argues, economic and gender relations, for example, do not simply bypass the systemic or structural context of curriculum and enter directly into classroom practice. They are mediated by intervening layers of the education system (Cornbleth 1990: 7). Thus, the impact of these factors may be quite different to that expected.
Third, if curriculum theory and practice is inextricably linked to milieu then it becomes clear why there have been problems about introducing it into non-schooling contexts like youth work; and it is to this area which we will now turn.
Curriculum as the boundary between formal and informal education
Jeffs and Smith (1990; 1999) have argued that the notion of curriculum provides a central dividing line between formal and informal education. They contend that curriculum theory and practice was formed within the schooling context and that there are major problems when it is introduced into informal forms of pedagogy.
The adoption of curriculum theory and practice by some informal educators appears to have arisen from a desire to be clear about content. Yet there are crucial difficulties with the notion of curriculum in this context. These centre around the extent to which it is possible to have a clear idea, in advance (and even during the process), of the activities and topics that will be involved in a particular piece of work.
At any one time, outcomes may not be marked by a high degree of specificity. In a similar way, the nature of the activities used often cannot be predicted. It may be that we can say something about how the informal educator will work. However, knowing in advance about broad processes and ethos isn’t the same as having a knowledge of the programme. We must, thus, conclude that approaches to the curriculum which focus on objectives and detailed programmes appear to be incompatible with informal education. (Jeffs & Smith 1990: 15)
In other words, they are arguing that a product model of curriculum is not compatible with the emphasis on process and praxis within informal education.
However, process and praxis models of curriculum also present problems in the context of informal education. If you look back at at our models of process and compare them with the model of informal education presented above then it is clear that we can have a similar problem with pre-specification. One of the key feature that differentiates the two is that the curriculum model has the teacher entering the situation with a proposal for action which sets out the essential principles and features of the educational encounter. Informal educators do not have, and do not need, this element. They do not enter with a clear proposal for action. Rather, they have an idea of what makes for human well-being, and an appreciation of their overall role and strategy (strategy here being some idea about target group and broad method e.g. detached work). They then develop their aims and interventions in interaction. And what is this element we have been discussing? It is nothing more nor less than what Stenhouse considers to be a curriculum!
The other key difference is context. Even if we were to go the whole hog and define curriculum as process there remain substantive problems. As Cornbleth (1990), and Jeffs and Smith (1990, 1999) have argued, curriculum cannot be taken out of context, and the context in which it was formed was the school. Curriculum theory and practice only makes sense when considered alongside notions like class, teacher, course, lesson and so on. You only have to look at the language that has been used by our main proponents: Tyler, Stenhouse, Cornbleth and Grundy, to see this. It is not a concept that stands on its own. It developed in relation to teaching and within particular organizational relationships and expectations. Alter the context and the nature of the process alters . We then need different ways of describing what is going on. Thus, it is no surprise that when curriculum theory and practice are introduced into what are essentially informal forms of working such as youth work and community work, their main impact is to formalize significant aspects of the work. One of the main outcome of curriculum experiments within youth work has been work, for example in the field of health promotion, which involve pre-specified activities, visiting workers, regular meetings and so on. Within the language of youth work these are most often called programmes or projects (Foreman 1990). Within a school they would be called a course.
What is being suggested here is that when informal educators take on the language of curriculum they are crossing the boundary between their chosen specialism and the domain of formal education. This they need to do from time to time. There will be formal interludes in their work, appropriate times for them to mount courses and to discuss content and method in curriculum terms. But we should not fall into the trap of thinking that to be educators we have to adopt curriculum theory and practice. The fact that so many have been misled into believing this demonstrates just how powerful the ideas of schooling are. Education is something more than schooling.
Conclusion
We have explored four different approaches to curriculum theory and practice:
Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted.
Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product.
Curriculum as process.
Curriculum as praxis.
In a number of respects these different bodies of curriculum theory and practice link to the four main forces in North American curriculum-making in the twentieth century: the liberal educators; the scientific curriculum makers; the developmental/person-centred; and the social meliorists (those that sought more radical social change) (after Kliebart 1987).
the liberal educators
the scientific curriculum makers
the develop- mentalists
the social meliorists
Orientation
Guardians of an ancient tradition tied to the power of reason and the finest elements of the Western cultural heritage
Human life consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities.
The natural order of development in the child was most significant and scientifically defensible basis for determining what should be taught
Schools as a major, perhaps the, principal force for social change and social justice
Curriculum
Systematic development of reasoning power and the communication of ‘the canon’.
Influenced by the rise of scientific management and notions of social efficiency. Focus on setting objectives (the statement of changes to take place in the students) and the organization of schooling to meet these.
Sought a curriculum in harmony with the child’s ‘real’ interests, needs and learning patterns
Corruption and vice, inequalities of race and gender, and the abuse of privilege and power should be addressed directly. with the aim of raising a new generation equipped to deal effectively with these abuses.
Key thinkers
Charles W. Taylor
Franklin Bobbitt and Ralph W. Tyler
G. Stanley Hall
Lester Frank Ward
Linked to
transmission
product
process
praxis
We shouldn’t push the similarities too far – but there are some interesting overlaps – and this does alert us both to the changing understanding and to shifting policy orientations over time.
For the moment we are having to operate within a policy environment that prizes the productive and technical. Furthermore, the discourse has become so totalizing that forms of education that do not have a curricula basis are squeezed. The temptation is always there to either be colonized by curriculum theory or adopt ways of describing practice that do not make sense in terms of the processes and commitments involved. Kleibart’s analysis provides us with some hope – things will change. However, there is no guarantee that they will move in a more edifying direction.
Further reading and references
I have picked out some books that have the greatest utility for those concerned with informal education and lifelong learning.
Caffarella, R. S. (1994) Planning Programs for Adult Learners. A practical guide for educators, trainers and staff developers, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 248 pages. Just what the title says – but has the advantage of many manuals in this area in that the underlying model is dynamic and interactive and avoids some of the problems with linear planning models. Clearly written with plenty of worksheets etc.
Griffin, C. (1987) Curriculum Theory in Adult and Lifelong Education, London: Croom Helm. 218 pages. Explores the use of curriculum theory and practice in non-school settings. Particular attention is paid to Illich, Freire, Gelpi etc.
Grundy, S. (1987) Curriculum: Product or Praxis, Lewes: Falmer. 209 + ix pages. Good discussion of the nature of curriculum theory and practice from a critical perspective. Grundy starts from Habermas’ theorisation of knowledge and human interest and makes use of Aristotle to develop a models of curriculum around product, process and praxis.
Houle, C. O. (1972) The Design of Education, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 323 pages. Influential statement of theory and practice with regard to a fundamental structure for program design. Identifies basic situations (eleven in all) in which programs are planned and discusses their operation.
Kliebard, H. M. (1987) The Struggle for the American Curriculum 1893 – 1958, New York: Routledge. 300 + xvii pages. A cracker of a book which charts the development of different curricula traditions and the political and social context in which they arose. He unpicks suspect notions such as ‘progressive education’ and demonstrates how Dewey in particular is positioned outside the main competing traditions. The movement between mental discipline, child centredness, scientific curriculum making (Taylorism) and social meliorism provides a very helpful set of insights into the theory and process of curriculum making within adult education.
Knowles, M. S. (1980) The Modern Practice of Adult Education. From pedagogy to andragogy 2e, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Cambridge/Prentice Hall. 400 pages. Pretty much the standard US work on practical program design in the 1970s and 1980s. Based around Knowles’ assumptions concerning the way adults learn with some leanings to behaviouralism. Part one explores the emerging role and technology of adult education; Part two organizing and administering comprehensive programs of adult education; and Part three reflects on helping adults learn. Extensive appendices provide various exhibits and additional models. See also Knowles (1950) Informal Adult Education. A guide for administrators, leaders and teachers, New York: Association Press (272 pages) for an early but still useful review of program design and implementation within an NGO (Chicago YMCA).
Langenbach, M. (1988) Curriculum Models in Adult Education, Malibar: Krieger. 228 pages. Argues that adult educators must have a sound understanding of program design. Reviews different models of curriculum theory and practice (largely US) and assesses some specific areas of practice such as continuing professional education and literacy education.
Ross, A. (2000) Curriculum: Construction and critique, London: Falmer Press. 187 + xiii pages. Helpful overview of the history of curriculum development in Britain
Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, London: Heinemann. 248 + viii pages. Classic statement of a process approach to the theory and practice of curriculum making. Chapters explore the nature of the curriculum problem; the content of education; teaching; the school as an institution; behavioural objectives and curriculum development; a critique of the objectives model; the process model; evaluation; a research model of curriculum development; the teacher as researcher; and the school and innovation.
Thornton, S. J. and Flinders, D. J. (eds.) (1997) The Curriculum Studies Reader, London: Routledge. 416 pages. Excellent collection of 30 readings that provides both a sample of enduring work and more recent material around curriculum theory and practice. Includes: Bobbitt, Dewey, Counts, Kliebard, Eisner, Jackson, Schwab, Greene, Freire, McLaughlin, Ravitch, Glazer, Apple, Lieberman and more.
Tyler, R. W. (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 128 pages. Important discussion of product-oriented curriculum building. The process is clear from the chapter titles: what educational purposes should the school seek to attain? How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining these objectives? How can learning experiences be organized for effective instruction? How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated? How a school or college staff may work on curriculum building.
Wragg, T. (1997) The Cubic Curriculum, London: Routledge. 120 + x pages. Put aside the naff tittle – this book provides an accessible model of cur riculum building that attempts to incorporate a ‘vision of the future’; a recognition that there are escalating demands on citizens, a belief that (children’s) learning must be inspired by several influences; and lastly that it is essential to see the curriculum as much more than a mere collection of subjects and syllabuses. Wragg’s ‘cubic curriculum’ has three dimensions: subject matter; cross-curricular themes and issues that influence children’s general development; and the different methods of teaching and learning that can be employed. The concern is to provide a model for practice – so the book is a bit lightweight with regard to competing conceptualizations of curriculum and alternatives to curriculum thinking.
References
Aristotle (1976) The Nicomachean Ethics (‘Ethics’), Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Barnes, J. (1976) ‘Introduction’ to Aristotle The Nicomachean Ethics (‘Ethics’), Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Barrow, R. (1984) Giving Teaching back to Teachers. A critical introduction to curriculum theory, Brighton: Wheatsheaf Books.
Blenkin, G. M. et al (1992) Change and the Curriculu,, London: Paul Chapman.
Bobbitt, F. (1918) The Curriculum, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Bobbitt, F. (1928) How to Make a Curriculum, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical. Education, knowledge and action research, Lewes: Falmer Press
Cornbleth, C. (1990) Curriculum in Context, Basingstoke: Falmer Press.
Curzon, L. B. (1985) Teaching in Further Education. An outline of principles and practice 3e, London: Cassell.
Dewey, J. (1902) The Child and the Curriculum, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Dewey, J. (1938) Experience and Education, New York: Macmillan.
Eisner, E. W. (1985) The Art of Educational Evaluation, Lewes: Falmer Press.
Foreman, A. (1990) ‘Personality and curriculum’ in T. Jeffs. & M. Smith (eds.) (1990) Using Informal Education. An alternative to casework, teaching and control? Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Also in the archives.
Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Grundy, S. (1987) Curriculum: product or praxis? Lewes: Falmer Press.
Jackson, P. W. (1968) Life in Classrooms, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Jeffs, T. & Smith, M. (eds.) (1990) Using Informal Education. An alternative to casework, teaching and control? Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Jeffs, T. J. and Smith, M. K. (1999) Informal Education. Conversation, democracy and learning, Ticknall: Education Now.
Kelly, A. V. (1983; 1999) The Curriculum. Theory and practice 4e, London: Paul Chapman.
Stenhouse, L. (1975) An introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, London: Heineman.
Newman, E. & G. Ingram (1989) The Youth Work Curriculum, London: Further Education Unit (FEU).
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and practice, New York: Harcourt Brace and World.
Tyler, R. W. (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Usher, R. & I. Bryant (1989) Adult Education as Theory, Practice and Research. The captive triangle, London: Routledge.
Links
Knowledge
Acknowledgements: Picture: rubber bands by eek the cat. Sourced from Flickr and reproduced here under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic (CC BY-ND 2.0) Licence. http://www.flickr.com/photos/eek/76924263
How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) ‘Curriculum theory and practice’ The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
© Mark K. Smith 1996, 2000
Last Updated on June 4, 2018 by infed.org
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Curriculum and expected learning outcomes
Curriculum and expected learning outcomes
Last update 22 Mar 23
Curriculum
The development, dissemination, and implementation of relevant and effective curriculum and expected learning outcomes can improve teaching and learning.
The curriculum framework, including the expected learning outcomes, communicates what teachers and learners should know and do. Curriculum is a description of what, why, how, and how well students should learn in a systematic and intentional way.(14) Expected learning outcomes define the totality of information, knowledge, understanding, attitudes, values, skills, competencies, or behaviours a learner should master upon the successful completion of the curriculum.(14) To improve education quality special efforts are needed to align the intended curriculum (the official guidance), the implemented curriculum (what teachers and learners actually do), and the attained curriculum (what students actually learn).(14) An extensive collection of resources on improving the quality and relevance of the curriculum, as well as its linkage to teaching, learning, and assessment processes, is available through the International Bureau of Education (IBE-UNESCO).
Issues and Discussion
Curriculum organization: Curriculum frameworks reflect the political and social agreements of education and aim to guide regulation, implementation, and evaluation of curricula.(1) They can be organized by competencies, disciplinary subjects, learning areas, and interdisciplinary or cross-curricular topics.(1) They also define the appropriate learning objectives, or expected learning outcomes, for successive levels of learning. Competency-based curriculum focuses on learners demonstrating mastery of certain interconnected knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In addition to subject-specific competencies, curriculum frameworks may address cross-cutting competencies such as communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity, and principles such as personalization, inclusive systems, sustainable development, and social justice.(1)
Curriculum development: The development of curricula and expected learning outcomes is a dynamic cyclical process requiring reassessment and adaptation over time.(5)(11)(23) Because it involves deciding what knowledge is legitimate and important, it can be a highly political process.(26) In some countries, curriculum is defined primarily at the national level, while in other education systems curriculum is more a matter for local and even classroom-based decision-making, often guided by a framework of learning standards.(9)(23)(26) In today’s context of global education goals and international assessments, questions of universality versus contextualization are becoming increasingly important.(3)(5)(7) While some learning goals may be universally appropriate, there are also specific national, local, and minority concerns that the curriculum needs to take into account. At all levels of curriculum development, relevance is improved when teachers are involved—as long as they are given chances to develop their curricular literacy, and are provided the required resources, time, and incentives for extensive deliberation.(17) New curricula can be tested and refined through feasibility studies and by piloting in select schools.(13)
Ensuring effectiveness and relevance: Effective curriculum is based on backwards planning, which starts from the identification of desired learning results and how these can be measured, and then determines the learning experiences that can lead to these outcomes.(24) There has long been a debate about the relative merits of traditional didactic approaches, versus constructivist or student-centred approaches to curriculum. However, research on learning shows that this is a false dichotomy: for curriculum to be effective, it needs to include a balanced and integrated use of teacher-led guided learning, student-led action learning, and whole context-dependent experiential learning.(18) To be relevant, the curriculum also needs to connect to learners’ daily lives, interests, and motivations, and allow for differentiation of learning experiences to meet different students’ needs.(1)(21)(24) In addition to stating what should be learned, the curriculum therefore needs to give teachers guidance on how to structure teaching and learning activities and how to assess learning achievement.(22)
Dissemination: Specific plans must be laid for the dissemination of new curricula and expected learning outcomes, in order to make educators aware of their existence and of the needed changes in teaching practices. Alignment of textbooks and other pedagogical materials is also a special concern, and the distribution and adoption of any new or revised materials should be addressed as part of the curriculum planning process. Curriculum dissemination plans should also take into account the development of curricular literacy at the level of districts, schools, and individual teachers.(4)
Implementation: The implementation of the curriculum framework is a complex process which occurs over time and through many mechanisms.(10) Some policy levers to facilitate implementation include: teacher training, providing incentives for school districts, providing external facilitators to assist in implementation, encouraging demonstrations, and sharing ideas, information, and expertise between educators.(17) Education planners may need to decide on the relative importance of fidelity—precise application of the curriculum in its original form—versus allowing teachers to make adaptations that meet their learners’ needs.(17) Planners can monitor implementation to understand how to support the process, by asking four essential questions: what are teachers doing?, what are students doing?, how are materials being used?, and what kind of data should be collected to answer these questions? Potential methods for data collection can include direct observation, checklists, self-reports, and student portfolios.(17)
Teacher professional development: In order for changes in curriculum and expected learning outcomes to be carried into practice, ongoing teacher development must be central to curriculum policy. Teachers’ commitment to change can vary from committed to resistant, due to differences in teachers’ curricular literacy, competence, and confidence, as well as whether the curriculum development process included teacher perspectives.(16)(17) Pre-service teacher training systems will often need to be revised to reflect new curriculum frameworks. In addition, interactive professional development is necessary to build understanding of learning outcomes, curriculum, and teaching practices while allowing multiple cycles for assimilation of knowledge, practice, and reflection on experience.(16)(20) Teachers also need to learn how to use learning outcomes and curriculum frameworks to develop formative assessments that can provide evidence of student understanding and skills and allow teachers to interpret evidence and change classroom practices, closing the gap between desired and actual understandings.(2)(12)(25)
Inclusiveness Considerations
Participation of indigenous and minority populations in creating curriculum: Contemporary forms of education are strongly based on a Western model of schooling that spread along with missionary activity and colonialism, in many cases irrevocably altering or replacing indigenous forms of education and socialization. With this legacy in mind, it is important to give indigenous and minority populations new opportunities to decide what knowledge and abilities are to be valued and included in the official curriculum.(19)
Gender: Learning outcomes, curricula, assessments, and teaching practices should be either gender neutral or gender inclusive and non-discriminatory.(8)
Language Minority Students: Providing a quality education to all students means taking special considerations for learners whose mother-tongue is not the language of instruction. Curricula should support teachers in understanding and implementing appropriate practices for these students.(6)
Plans and policies
National Curriculum Framework in England [PDF]
A National Curriculum Framework for All in Malta [PDF]
National Curriculum Framework in Mauritius [PDF]
References and sources
1. Amadio, M. Opertti, R., and Tedesco, J. C. 2015. The curriculum in debates and in educational reforms to 2030: For a curriculum agenda of the twenty-first century. Geneva: UNESCO IBE.
2. Black, P. 2001. ‘Formative assessment and curriculum consequences.’ Curriculum and Assessment. Westport, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing.
3. Chapman, D.W., Weidman, J., Cohen, M. and Mercer, M. 2005. ‘The search for quality: A five country study of national strategies to improve educational quality in Central Asia.’ International Journal of Educational Development. 25.
4. Chrispeels, J.H. 1997. ‘Educational policy implementation in a shifting political climate: The California experience.’ American Educational Research Journal. 34(3).
5. DeBoer, G. 2011. ‘The globalization of science education.’ Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 48(8).
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Curriculum Design, Development and Models: Planning for Student Learning – Curriculum Essentials: A Journey
Curriculum Design, Development and Models: Planning for Student Learning – Curriculum Essentials: A Journey
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Contents
DedicationForwardIntroduction I. Part 1: Curriculum Foundations, Definitions, and Trends1. Defining Curriculum and the Role of Open Educational Resources2. Historical Events and Philosophical Influences in Curriculum and Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy3. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum4. Sociological and Political Issues That Affect CurriculumII. Part II: Developing an Awareness of How Curriculum Drives Educational Practices5. Curriculum Design, Development and Models: Planning for Student Learning6. The Scope of Curriculum and Development of Curriculum7. Factors That Influence Curriculum and Curriculum Evaluation8. Designing and Assessing Aims, Goals, Objectives (AGO) 9. Beyond Behavioral Objectives: Problem Solving and Constructivism 10. Backward Design Process as a Curriculum Development ModelIII. Part III: Acquiring Knowledge about Existing Curricula and Models of Instruction11. Curriculum Integration12. The Taught Curriculum - Strategies for Teaching Today’s Students 13. 21st-Century Teachers and Learners - Meeting the Needs of All LearnersIV. Part IV: Becoming familiar with the varied roles and complexities of assessment14. The Tested Curriculum and Changing Views of Assessment 15. Curriculum, Technology, and Teaching in Challenging Times16. Curriculum Innovations References and Resources
Curriculum Essentials: A Journey
5 Curriculum Design, Development and Models: Planning for Student Learning
“. . . there is always a need for newly formulated curriculum models that address contemporary circumstance and valued educational aspirations.” –Edmond Short
Introduction
Curriculum design refers to the structure or organization of the curriculum, and curriculum development includes the planning, implementation, and evaluation processes of the curriculum. Curriculum models guide these processes.
Essential Questions
What is curriculum design?
What questions did Tyler pose for guiding the curriculum design process?
What are the major curriculum design models?
What unique element did Goodlad add to his model?
In addition to the needs of the learner, what did Hilda Taba add to her model?
Meaning of Curriculum Design
From Curriculum Studies, pp. 65-68
Curriculum design is largely concerned with issues such as what to include in the curriculum and how to present it in such a way that the curriculum can be implemented with understanding and success (Barlow et al., 1984). Therefore, curriculum design refers to how the components of the curriculum have been arranged in order to facilitate learning (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992).
Curriculum design is concerned with issues of choosing what the organizational basis or structural framework of the curriculum is. The choice of a design often implies a value position.
As with other curriculum-related concepts, curriculum design has a variety of definitions, depending on the scholars involved. For example, Doll (1992) says that curriculum design is a way of organizing that permits curriculum ideas to function. She also adds that curriculum design refers to the structure or pattern of the organization of the curriculum.
The curriculum design process results in a curriculum document that contains the following:
a statement of purpose(s),
an instructional guide that displays behavioral objectives and content organization in harmony with school organization,
a set of guidelines (or rules) governing the use of the curriculum, and
an evaluation plan.
Thus, curriculum is designed to fit the organizational pattern of the school/institution for which it is intended.
How a curriculum is conceptualized, organized, developed, and implemented depends on a particular state’s or district’s educational objectives. Whatever design is adopted depends also on the philosophy of education.
There are several ways of designing school curriculum. These include subject-centered, learner-centered, integrated, or broad fields (which combines two or more related subjects into one field of study; e.g., language arts combine the separate but related subjects of reading, writing, speaking, listening, comprehension, and spelling into a core curriculum).
Subject-Centered Curriculum Design
This curriculum design refers to the organization of curriculum in terms of separate subjects, e.g., geography, math, and history, etc. This has been the oldest school curriculum design and the most common in the world. It was even practiced by the ancient Greek educators. The subject-centered design was adapted by many European and African countries as well as states and districts in the United States. An examination of the subject-centered curriculum design shows that it is used mainly in the upper elementary and secondary schools and colleges. Frequently, laypeople, educators, and other professionals who support this design received their schooling or professional training in this type of system. Teachers, for instance, are trained and specialized to teach one or two subjects at the secondary and sometimes the elementary school levels.
There are advantages and disadvantages of this approach to curriculum organization. There are reasons why some educators advocate for it while others criticize this approach.
Advantages of Subject-Centered Curriculum Design
It is possible and desirable to determine in advance what all children will learn in various subjects and grade levels. For instance, curricula for schools in centralized systems of education are generally developed and approved centrally by a governing body in the education body for a given district or state. In the U.S., the state government often oversees this process which is guided by standards.
It is usually required to set minimum standards of performance and achievement for the knowledge specified in the subject area.
Almost all textbooks and support materials on the educational market are organized by subject, although the alignment of the text contents and the standards are often open for debate.
Tradition seems to give this design greater support. People have become familiar and more comfortable with the subject-centered curriculum and view it as part of the system of the school and education as a whole.
The subject-centered curriculum is better understood by teachers because their training was based on this method, i.e., specialization.
Advocates of the subject-centered design have argued that the intellectual powers of individual learners can develop through this approach.
Curriculum planning is easier and simpler in the subject-centered curriculum design.
Disadvantages of Subject-Centered Curriculum Design
Critics of subject-centered curriculum design have strongly advocated a shift from it. These criticisms are based on the following arguments:
Subject-centered curriculum tends to bring about a high degree of fragmentation of knowledge.
Subject-centered curriculum lacks integration of content. Learning in most cases tends to be compartmentalized. Subjects or knowledge are broken down into smaller seemingly unrelated bits of information to be learned.
This design stresses content and tends to neglect the needs, interests, and experiences of the students.
There has always been an assumption that information learned through the subject-matter curriculum will be transferred for use in everyday life situations. This claim has been questioned by many scholars who argue that the automatic transfer of the information already learned does not always occur.
Given the arguments for and against subject-centered curriculum design, let us consider the learner-centered or personalized curriculum design.
Learner-Centered/Personalized Curriculum Design
Students who have varying needs, interests, and abilities may benefit from a personalized curriculum.
Learner-centered curriculum design may take various forms such as individualized or personalized learning. In this design, the curriculum is organized around the needs, interests, abilities, and aspirations of students.
Advocates of the design emphasize that attention is paid to what is known about human growth, development, and learning. Planning this type of curriculum is done along with the students after identifying their varied concerns, interests, and priorities and then developing appropriate topics as per the issues raised.
This type of design requires a lot of resources and manpower to meet a variety of needs. Hence, the design is more commonly used in the U.S. and other western countries, while in the developing world the use is more limited.
To support this approach, Hilda Taba (1962) stated, “Children like best those things that are attached to solving actual problems that help them in meeting real needs or that connect with some active interest. Learning in its true sense is an active transaction.”
Advantages of the Learner-Centered Curriculum Design
The needs and interests of students are considered in the selection and organization of content.
Because the needs and interests of students are considered in the planning of students’ work, the resulting curriculum is relevant to the student’s world.
The design allows students to be active and acquire skills and procedures that apply to the outside world.
Disadvantages of the Learner-Centered Curriculum Design
The needs and interests of students may not be valid or long lasting. They are often short-lived.
The interests and needs of students may not reflect specific areas of knowledge that could be essential for successful functioning in society. Quite often, the needs and interests of students have been emphasized and not those that are important for society in general.
The nature of the education systems and society in many countries may not permit learner-centered curriculum design to be implemented effectively.
As pointed out earlier, the design is expensive in regard to resources, both human and fiscal, that are needed to satisfy the needs and interests of individual students.
This design is sometimes accused of shallowness. It is argued that critical analysis and in-depth coverage of subject content is inhibited by the fact that students’ needs and interests guide the planning process.
Broad Fields/Integrated Curriculum
From Curriculum Studies, pp. 69-80
In the broad fields/integrated curriculum design, two, three, or more subjects are unified into one broad course of study. This organization is a system of combining and regrouping subjects that are related to the curriculum.
This approach attempts to develop some kind of synthesis or unity for the entire branch or more branches of knowledge into new fields.
Examples of Broad Fields
Language Arts: Incorporates reading, writing, grammar, literature, speech, drama, and international languages.
General Science: Includes natural and physical sciences, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, physical geography, zoology, botany, biology, and physiology
Other: Include environmental education and family-life education
Advocates of the broad fields/integrated designs believe that the approach brings about unification and integration of knowledge. However, looking at the trend of events in curriculum practice in many states and countries, this may not have materialized effectively. The main reason is that teachers are usually trained in two subjects at the university level, thus making it difficult for them to integrate more areas than that. For instance, general science might require physics, chemistry, biology, and geology, but science teachers may have only studied two of these areas in depth.
Advantages of Broad Field/Integrated Curriculum Design
It is based on separate subjects, so it provides for an orderly and systematic exposure to the cultural heritage.
It integrates separate subjects into a single course; this enables learners to see the relationships among various elements in the curriculum.
It saves time in the school schedule.
Disadvantages of Broad Field/Integrated Curriculum Design
It lacks depth and cultivates shallowness.
It provides only bits and pieces of information from a variety of subjects.
It does not account for the psychological organization by which learning takes place.
Core Curriculum Design
Meaning of Core Curriculum
The concept core curriculum is used to refer to areas of study in the school curriculum or any educational program that is required by all students. The core curriculum provides students with “common learning” or general education that is considered necessary for all. Thus, the core curriculum constitutes the segment of the curriculum that teaches concepts, skills, and attitudes needed by all individuals to function effectively within the society.
Characteristics of Core Curriculum Design
The basic features of the core curriculum designs include the following:
They constitute a section of the curriculum that all students are required to take.
They unify or fuse subject matter, especially in subjects such as English, social studies, etc.
Their content is planned around problems that cut across the disciplines. In this approach, the basic method of learning is problem-solving using all applicable subject matter.
They are organized into blocks of time, e.g. two or three periods under a core teacher. Other teachers may be utilized where it is possible.
Types of Core Curriculum Designs
The following types of core curriculum are commonly found in secondary schools and college curriculums.
Type One
Separate subjects taught separately with little or no effort to relate them to each other (e.g., mathematics, science, languages, and humanities may be taught as unrelated core subjects in high schools).
Type Two
The integrated or “fused” core design is based on the overall integration of two or more subjects, for example:
Physics, chemistry, biology, and zoology may be taught as general science.
Environmental education is an area with an interdisciplinary approach in curriculum planning.
History, economics, civics, and geography may be combined and taught as social studies.
Curriculum Design Models
There are a variety of curriculum design models to guide the process. Most of the designs are based on Ralph Tyler’s work which emphasizes the role and place of objectives in curriculum design.
Ralph Tyler’s Model
Tyler’s Model (1949) is based on the following four (4) fundamental questions he posed for guiding the curriculum design process. They are as follows:
What educational purposes is the school seeking to attain?
What educational experiences are potentially provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
Schematically, Tyler’s model is presented as follows.
Figure 5.1 – Ralph Tyler’s Model
Application of Ralph Tyler’s Model in Curriculum Design
In applying Tyler’s model to curriculum design, the process begins with framing objectives for the curriculum. Because of its emphasis on the importance of objectives, it is considered an objective-based model. This process starts with analyzing information from various data sources. Data sources for curriculum according to Tyler include:
Contemporary society/life
For this source, the designer analyzes the issues affecting society that could be solved through education.
Examples are cultural issues, socio-economic issues, and health issues such as HIV/AIDS among.
Learner’s needs and interests
Subject specialists/subject matter
From these sources, the designer develops general objectives. These are subjected to a screening process, using the philosophy of education and psychology of learning as the major screens. Social values are also used as a screen, but sometimes these are subsumed in the philosophy of education. This yields a feasible number of objectives that are focused on in education.
Specific objectives are then derived from the general objectives. For each of the specific objectives, learning experiences are identified. In this context, the learning experiences include the subject matter/content and learning activities.
The next step is the organization of learning experiences. This is done to ensure effective learning takes place. The various principles of the organization include scope, sequence, integration, and continuity, among others. The final step involves evaluation, to determine the extent to which the objectives have been met.
Feedback from the evaluation is then used to modify the learning experiences and the entire curriculum as found necessary.
Learning Experiences
Learning experiences refer to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment which they encounter. Learning takes place through the active participation of the students; it is what the students are involved in that they learn, not what the teacher does.
The problem of selecting learning experiences is the problem of determining the kind of experiences likely to produce given educational objectives and also the problem of how to set up opportunity situations that evoke or provide within the student the kinds of learning experiences desired.
General Principles in Selecting Learning Experiences
Provide experiences that give students opportunities to practice the behavior and deal with the content implied.
Provide experiences that give satisfaction from carrying on the kind of behavior implied in the objectives.
Provide experiences that are appropriate to the student’s present attainments, his/her predispositions.
Keep in mind that many experiences can be used to attain the same educational objectives.
Remember that the same learning experience will usually bring about several outcomes.
Selection of Subject Matter/Content
The term subject matter/content refers to the data, concepts, generalizations, and principles of school subjects such as mathematics, biology, or chemistry that are organized into bodies of knowledge sometimes called disciplines. For instance, Ryman (1973) specifically defines content as:
Knowledge such as facts, explanations, principles, definitions, skills, and processes such as reading, writing, calculating, dancing, and values such as the beliefs about matters concerned with good and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly.
The selection of content and learning experiences is one crucial part of curriculum making. This is mainly because of the explosion of knowledge that made the simplicity of school subjects impossible. As specialized knowledge increases, it is necessary either to add more subjects or to assign new priorities in the current offerings to make room for new knowledge and new concepts.
New requirements for what constitute literacy have also emerged. In secondary schools, the usual method of accommodating new demands is to introduce new subjects or to put new units into existing subjects.
Improved educational technology such as the use of television, radio, computers, and multi-media resources support an expansion of what can be learned in a given period. New technological aids for self- teaching, for communicating information, and for learning a variety of skills are shifting the balance of time and effort needed for acquiring a substantial portion of the curriculum. What then are the criteria for the selection of content?
Criteria for the Selection of Content
Several criteria need to be considered in selecting content. These include the validity, significance, needs, and interests of learners.
Validity
The term validity implies a close connection between content and the goals which it is intended to serve. In this sense, content is valid if it promotes the outcomes that it is intended to promote. In other words, does the curriculum include concepts and learnings that it states it does?
Significance
The significance of curriculum content refers to the sustainability of the material chosen to meet certain needs and ability levels of the learners.
Needs and Interests of the Learner
The needs and interests of the learners are considered in the selection of content to ensure a relevant curriculum to the student’s world. This also ensures that the students will be more motivated to engage with the curriculum.
Utility
In this context, the subject matter of a curriculum is selected in the light of its usefulness to the learner in solving his/her problems now and in the future.
Learnability
Curriculum content is learnable and adaptable to the students’ experiences. One factor in learnability is the adjustment of the curriculum content and the focus of learning experiences on the abilities of the learners. For effective learning, the abilities of students must be taken into account at every point of the selection and organization.
Consistency with Social Realities
If the curriculum is to be a useful prescription for learning, its content, and the outcomes it pursues need to be in tune with the social and cultural realities of the culture and the times.
John Goodlad’s Model
The Goodlad model deviates a bit from the Ralph Tyler’s model. It is particularly unique in its use of social values. Whereas Tyler considers them as a screen, Goodlad proposes they are used as data sources. Hence, Goodlad proposes four data sources:
values,
funded knowledge,
conventional wisdom, and
student needs and interests.
Figure 5.2 – John Goodlad’s Model
Values
John Goodlad was a Canadian-born educator and author who believed that the most important focus of education should not be based on standardized testing, but rather to prepare young people to be well-informed citizens in democracy. His inclusion of values in the curriculum-development chart reflects his belief that educational systems must be driven by goals or values. He believed that education has a moral dimension, and those who teach are “moral agents.” To be a professional teacher means that one is a moral agent with a moral obligation, including initiating the young into a culture. In the United States, this means “critical enculturation into a political democracy” because a democratic society depends on the renewal and blending of self-interests and the public welfare (Goodlad, 1988). For that reason, Goodlad places “values” at the very top of his model.
Funded Knowledge
Funded knowledge is knowledge which is gained from research. Generally, research is heavily funded by various organizations. Information from research is used to inform educational practice in all aspects, particularly in curriculum design.
Conventional Wisdom
Conventional wisdom includes specialized knowledge within the society, for example from experts in various walks of life and ‘older’ people with life experiences. Students’ needs and interests are also considered in the design process.
Data from the various sources are then used to develop general aims of education from which general educational objectives are derived. These objectives are stated in behavioral terms. A behavioral objective has two components: a behavioral element and a substantive element. The behavioral element refers to the ‘action’ that a learner is able to perform, while the substantive element represents the ‘content’ or “substance” of the behavior.
From the general objectives, the curriculum designer identifies learning opportunities that facilitate the achievement of the general objectives. This could, for example, be specific courses of study.
The next step involves deriving specific educational objectives stated behaviorally. These are akin to instructional objectives. They are used to identify “organizing centers” which are specific learning opportunities, for example, a specific topic, a field trip, an experiment, etc.
Regarding evaluation, Goodlad proposed continuous evaluation at all stages of the design process. In the model, evaluation is represented by the double-edged arrows that appear throughout the model.
How then does Tyler’s model differ with that of John Goodlad’s?
Goodlad’s model departs from the traditional model based on Tyler’s work in several ways:
recognition of references to scientific knowledge from research,
use of explicit value statements as primary data sources,
introduction of organizing centers i.e., the specific learning opportunities,
continuous evaluation is used as a constant data source, not only as a final monitor of students’ progress (formative evaluation) but also for checking each step in the curriculum planning process. Hence, the model insists upon both formative and process evaluation.
Curriculum literature still has many more models for design. We shall highlight a few of them.
Other Curriculum Designs
There are many other curriculum design models developed by different scholars. Most of these models are objectives-based, i.e. they focus on objectives as the basis upon which the entire design process is based, and draw a lot from the work of Ralph Tyler. Those include the Wheeler, Kerr, and Taba models.
The Wheeler Model
D.K. Wheeler developed a cyclic model in reaction to criticism leveled at Ralph Tyler’s model. The latter was seen as being too simplistic and vertical. By being vertical, it did not recognize the relationship between various curriculum elements. His cyclic proposal was therefore aimed at highlighting the interrelatedness of the various curriculum elements. It also emphasizes the need to use feedback from evaluation in redefining the goals and objectives of the curriculum.
Figure 5.3 – The Wheeler Method
The Models of John Kerr and Hilda Taba
Other scholars who were also convinced of the ‘objectives’ approach to curriculum design were John Kerr and Hilda Taba. Their work is summarized in the simplified models presented in the graphic presentations that follow. Both of them emphasize the interrelatedness of the various curriculum elements.
John Kerr’s Model
John Kerr, a British Curriculum specialist in the 1960s, was particularly concerned with the following issues: objectives, knowledge, school learning experiences, and evaluation. This is reflected in the sketch below.
Figure 5.4 – John Kerr’s Model
Kerr’s model is in many ways similar to that of Ralph Tyler and Wheeler. The difference is the emphasis on the interrelatedness of the various components in terms of the flow of the data between each component.
Hilda Taba’s Model
Hilda Taba was born in Europe and emigrated to the United States during a tumultuous time in history that had a great effect on her view of education. She was initially influenced by progressivists: John Dewey and Ralph Tyler, and one of her goals was to nurture the development of students and encourage them to actively participate in a democratic society. Taba’s model was inductive rather than deductive in nature, and it is characterized by being a continuous process.
Taba’s model emphasized concept development in elementary social studies curriculum and was used by teachers in her workshops. She was able to make connections between culture, politics, and social change as well as cognition, experience, and evaluation in curriculum development, particularly in the areas of teacher preparation and civic education. Taba’s work with teachers in communities around the United States and in Europe has provided a blueprint for curriculum development that continues to be used by curriculum developers today. To explore more information about Taba and her work, you may access Taba’s Bio.
Hilda Taba, on her part, was also influenced by Ralph Tyler. Her conceptual model follows. The interrelatedness of the curriculum elements from both models suggests the process is continuous.
Figure 5.4 – Hilda Taba’s Curriculum Model
Factors that Influence Curriculum Design
Several factors need to be taken into account when designing a curriculum. These include:
teacher’s individual characteristics,
application of technology,
student’s cultural background and socio-economic status,
interactions between teachers and students, and
classroom management; among many other factors.
Insight 5.0
There is no “silver bullet” in designing curriculum. What is best for one classroom or one district may not work somewhere else. When setting up the process, using a combination of designs might work best.
ILA 5.0
If you were leading a curriculum committee, which model would you use for the curriculum development process?
Respond using the Hypothesis ILA Responses Group annotation tool. Choose the content area(s) and grade level(s), a specific model or a combination of models, and include rationale for your choices.
Summary
Curriculum design is central to the development of curriculum, and it can be done in several ways. Each design has advantages and disadvantages for both learners and teachers. Ralph Tyler included four questions that guided his curriculum design model. Tyler’s model influenced later curriculum designs by John Goodlad, D.K. Wheeler, John Kerr, Hilda Taba, and others. In the next chapter, we look at how curriculum is developed and its scope.
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Curriculum Essentials: A Journey Copyright © 2021 by Linda J. Button, Ed.D. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
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Unbundling the University Curriculum pp 33–45Cite as
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Unbundling the University Curriculum
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Understanding Curriculum in Higher Education
Kate O’Connor4
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First Online: 03 September 2022
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Part of the Rethinking Higher Education book series (RHE)
AbstractCurriculum is a neglected area of attention in both higher education scholarship and policy. Despite a lot of concern and debate about university teaching practice, the curriculum effects of new teaching approaches tend to go unexamined. Although the concept of curriculum is complex and contested, foregrounding curriculum draws attention to the question of ‘what’ is taught in important ways (Deng, 2018; Yates, 2006), as well as the complex relations between curriculum and pedagogy (Bernstein, 1976). This chapter discusses the concept of curriculum and its importance for understanding the implications of unbundled online learning. It puts forward an interpretation of curriculum development as a contested site of struggle over the question of ‘what counts as knowledge’ and how knowledge is defined within a particular program of study. The chapter discusses the concepts and theories derived from the field of curriculum inquiry which informed this understanding, and how these were taken up to understand the case studies of unbundled online learning discussed later in the book. It highlights the concerns a focus on curriculum draws attention to, which are neglected in debates centered on learning and teaching.
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ReferencesAoki, T. (1980/2005). Toward curriculum inquiry in a new key. In W. Pinar & R. Irwin (Eds.), Curriculum in a new key (pp. 81–110). Lawrence Erlbaum.
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curriculum - 搜索 词典
iculum - 搜索 词典 Rewards网页图片视频学术词典地图更多航班我的必应笔记本curriculum美 [kəˈrɪkjələm] 英 [kəˈrɪkjʊləm] n.(学校等的)全部课程网络课程设置;课程表;课程安排复数:curriculums 复数:curricula 同义词n.course,prospectus,programme,program,syllabus权威英汉双解英汉英英网络释义curriculum显示所有例句n.1.(学校等的)全部课程the subjects that are included in a course of study or taught in a school, college, etc.the school curriculum学校课程Spanish is on the curriculum.西班牙语已纳入课程内容。Spanish is in the curriculum.西班牙语已纳入课程内容。n.1.(一个学校,专业,或学科的)全部课程2.(取得毕业资格等的)必修课程n.1.the subjects that students study at a particular school or college1.课程雅思词汇表_百度文库 ... cultivate 耕作;培养 curriculum 课程 D dab 轻拍 ... wenku.baidu.com|基于7088个网页2.课程设置哈尔滨纳斯达克英语学校-专业英语培训机构 ... 学校简介 About Us 课程设置 Curriculum 应试课程 Examination ... www.nasdakenenglish.com|基于1257个网页3.课程表俞敏洪单词串讲 - annjining的日志 - 网易博客 ... curator cure 关心 管理员 curriculum 课程表 custodian 监护人或管理员 ... annjining.blog.163.com|基于636个网页4.全部课程最让男人感动的电影 ... currency n 通货,货币;流通,流行 curriculum n 课程,全部课程 customary a 习惯上,惯常的,合乎 …www.douban.com|基于303个网页5.课程安排观察课程安排(curriculum),了解他们注重哪一方面能力的培养若有教授faculty portfolio,也可看出主要风格和流派 评论加载中, …blog.sina.com.cn|基于263个网页6.课程与教学 ... 许明辉 Hui,Ming-Fai 课程与教学 Curriculum & Instruction Quarterly 中文 Chinese ... db1n.sinica.edu.tw|基于217个网页7.学校的全部课程医学考博英语1万词汇 - 豆丁网 ... curiosity n. 好奇心;珍品;古玩 curriculum n. 学校的全部课程;(一门)课程 curse v. 诅咒…www.docin.com|基于108个网页8.总课程PET分类词汇 - 豆丁网 ... college 学院;大学 curriculum 总课程 degree 学位 ... www.docin.com|基于51个网页更多释义收起释义例句释义:全部全部,全部课程全部课程,课程设置课程设置,课程表课程表,课程安排课程安排类别:全部全部,口语口语,书面语书面语,标题标题,技术技术来源:全部全部,字典字典,网络网络难度:全部全部,简单简单,中等中等,难难更多例句筛选收起例句筛选1.Up to now, new school students of compulsory education in 90 percent of the counties in the country began to use the new curriculum.目前,全国90%以上的县(区)义务教育阶段起始年级,已经开始使用新课程。panyee.blog.163.com2.In the second place, in terms of pedagogy, it expounds that the theoretical foundation of the comparative study of curriculum system.从教育学的角度,阐明进行旅游专业课程体系比较研究的理论基础;www.zidir.com3.Tell us if you have experience with the International Primary Curriculum and what you think of it.告诉我们,如果您有与国际小学课程改革的经验和你想到它。www.englishtang.com4.The existence teaching practice rationality in reality is often not the reasonable existence that the curriculum reforms desires.现实存在的教学实践理性,往往不是课程改革所欲求的合理存在。www.fabiao.net5.We've had a mom in Utah who used them with her kids to a science researcher in the U. K. and curriculum developers in Hawaii.在犹他州有位母亲,与她的孩子们一起玩这些橡皮泥,她的孩子成了英国的科学研究员并在夏威夷开发新课程。www.ted.com6.As an ideal student, you know every fact, concept, principle, and technique in the undergraduate curriculum in your subject.作为一名优秀的研究生,你必须了解掌握相关专业本科课程中的每一个公理、概念、法则以及技巧。www.smth.edu.cn7.theoretical instruction is often provided by renowned members of the university faculty , particularly at upper levels of the curriculum.理论指导一般都由有名的,尤其是有高水平教纲的大学教授团成员提供。www.ichacha.net8."Due to the limitations in the curriculum, our effort now is to make sex education an extracurricular activity, " he said.“受总课程的限制,我们现在努力要做的就是把性教育列为一项课外活动。”他说。cn.nytimes.com9.But, for me, the problem with school atlases was that they stuck to the curriculum and tended to be predictable and conservative.但对我而言,学校的地图册有一个问题:它们过于拘泥于课程内容,往往既没有新意、又保守。www.ftchinese.com10.The "Learning field" model takes the place of the curriculum courses model based on subjects which has been used for many years.用“学习领域”的课程模式取代沿用多年的以分科课程为基础的学科课程模式。www.fabiao.net12345© 2024 Microsoft隐私声明和 Cookie法律声明广告帮-1.7 %����1524 0 obj <> endobj
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